This begins to seriously link the mysteries of the
ancient Greek world to access to plant based DMT. Our understanding of the global Atlantean civilization
strongly supports real access to Ayahuasca worldwide which simply ended after 1159
BCE. Trade did continue at a much lower
level but it is also certain that simple piracy cut of outlying societies such
as the Greek.
Thus the utilization of marginal local sources would
be encouraged. This item confirms exactly
that scenario taking place during the Classical Greek Era. I would be way more surprised at no such
evidence of DMT usage.
It also tells us that this particular chemical was
sought after as a matter of shamanic necessity.
Agrostis: Tryptamines
in the Crucible of Civilization
By Morris Crowley on Friday,
04 April 2014, hits: 3528
http://disinfo.com/2014/04/agrostis-tryptamines-crucible-civilization/
The ancient Greek
world was familiar with a wide variety of drugs... but is it possible that they
used DMT and related tryptamines as well? This article looks at the mythology
around an obscure Greek grass known as “agrostis” and considers how the ancient
Greeks could have utilized Phalaris grass for its psychoactive effects. For the
benefit of modern psychonauts, we also look at toxicity concerns surrounding
Phalaris.
The
genus Phalaris has an
interesting niche in the world of visionary plants. For DMT extractors, it is
simultaneously a “source of last resort” and the best hope of permanently
winning the battle against prohibitionists who would thwart individuals from
obtaining DMT. Perfecting the elusive “grass tek” – that is, finding a strain
of P. arundinacea, P. aquatica, or P. brachystachys that produces a
clean alkaloid profile and developing a simple and efficient method to purify
these alkaloids – would effectively make it impossible for governments to stop
people from obtaining DMT.
Prior
to current efforts in developing a grass tek, the last time that Phalaris saw such a surge in
popularity was the early 1990s, during the first few years of the Entheogen Review publication. At
that time, people were trying to find viable local plants from which to brew
ayahuasca analogues. In the years since, concerns have been raised about the
possible toxicity of Phalaris brews
(seeToxicity concerns below),
and plants with higher concentrations of DMT have become widely available on
the Internet.
So Phalaris has largely taken a
backseat in the contemporary Entheogenic Revival. Many are aware of its
visionary potential, but few actually take the effort to work with the plant.
Perhaps sometime in the future it will have its day in the sun.
But
all of this begs the question: might earlier cultures have also been familiar
with the visionary potential of Phalaris grasses?
After all, they are ubiquitous in many regions, and people have not always had
the botanical offerings of the entire planet a few keystrokes away as we do
now.
A
fortuitous footnote
As
it happens, there are references in ancient Greece to a grass that possesses
divine properties. I was recently rereading The Road to Eleusis, in which R. Gordon Wasson, Albert Hofmann,
and Carl A. P. Ruck contend that an entheogenic drug lay at the heart of the
Eleusinian Mystery, when I was struck by one particular footnote.
This
quotation requires some context. Hofmann had suggested three possible sources
of ergot sclerotia which could have been incorporated into the kykeon potion: Claviceps purpurea from either
barley (Hordeum vulgare) or
darnel (Lolium temulentum),
or Claviceps paspali from
knotgrass (Paspalum distichum).
Hofmann preferred the C. paspali hypothesis
because of its cleaner alkaloid profile, but Ruck preferred C. purpurea because its host
plants have closer mythological ties to the Mystery. To that end, Ruck argued
that we would not find any explicit references in ancient literature to
psychoactive effects from the plant which imbues the kykeonwith its visionary effects,
because any such references would violate the covenant of secrecy surrounding
the Mystery.
Ruck
tells us that P. distichum is
clearly represented as a psychoactive material in ancient sources, where it is
referred to as agrostis (Wasson
et al. 2008, p. 127), and therefore could not have been the key to the kykeon. We now know that P. distichum is a New World
species that did not arrive in Europe until sometime during the last few
centuries (Festi & Samorini 1999), so obviouslyagrostis could not have been P. distichum. Ruck acknowledges that the Greeks do not seem to
have distinguished between common species of grass, but neglects to mention how
he reconciles this fact with his (incorrect) certainty that the references
below involve P. distichum.
Leaving aside any speculations about the kykeon of the Eleusinian Mystery, we have the following
mythological complex associated with an unidentified species of grass:
The ancient grass agrostis or the ‘hunter plant’ was associated in myth with the sea demon Glaucus and was reputed to have magical properties…. Cronus was said to have sowed agrostis in paradise, the Islands of the Blest, where the horses of the sun god Helius grazed upon it to get the strength needed for their flight through the air. When Glaucus first ate of this grass that the untilled earth bears, he was engulfed in the sea for the archetypal voyage (Alexander Aetolus, p. 465, Rose, quoted in Athenaeus 7.296 ff.). It was an event that involved his love for Hydne, a ‘maiden of the water,’ and when this man from Anthedron, the ‘place of flowers,’ ate the herb, he became immortal (Aeschrion of Samos, quoted in Athenaeus). It must have been a love like that which Hylas experienced when he, like another Narcissus, fell into the embraces of the water maidens in the pool beside which grew this plant (Theocritus 13.42). It was also said that Glaucus found agrostis while hunting in the mountains, where he discovered that the hare he had wounded revived when anointed with the herb; upon tasting of it himself, he was seized by a divine madness and cast himself into the sea (Nicander, frg. 2, Schneider)... It was said that Glaucus could foretell the future (Diodorus Siculus 4.489), an art that he taught to Apollo himself (Nicander, frg. 2, Schneider); the Cumaean sibyl was the daughter of Glaucus (Vergil, Aeneid, 6.36). It was Glaucus, moreover, who built the Argo, the first ship ever made and the one that carried an assemblage of heroes on the primordial voyage to the magical garden on the witch Medea to capture the golden fleece for Jason (Iason, in Greek, the ‘man of the drug’). (Wasson et al. 2008, pp. 127–128)
Much
of the information presented in the above quote by Ruck can be found in a work
by Athenæus, composed in the early third century C.E., where he appears to draw
heavily on older sources:
Alexander
the Aetolian also mentions him in his poem entitled
the Fisherman, saying that he
First
tasted grass,
(and then was immersed in the sea and drowned,)
(and then was immersed in the sea and drowned,)
The herb
which in the islands of the blest,
When first the spring doth beam upon the earth,
The untill’d land shows to the genial sun.
And the sun gives it to his weary steeds,
A most refreshing food, raised in the shade.
So that they come in vigour back renew’d
Unto their daily task, and no fatigue
Or pain can stop their course.
When first the spring doth beam upon the earth,
The untill’d land shows to the genial sun.
And the sun gives it to his weary steeds,
A most refreshing food, raised in the shade.
So that they come in vigour back renew’d
Unto their daily task, and no fatigue
Or pain can stop their course.
But
Aeschrion the Samian, in some one of his Iambic poems, says that Glaucus the
sea-deity was in love with Hydna, the daughter of Scyllus, the diver of Scione.
And he makes particular mention of this herb, namely, that any one who eats of
it becomes immortal, saying—
And you
found too th’ agrostis of the gods,
The sacred plant which ancient Saturn sow’d.
The sacred plant which ancient Saturn sow’d.
And
Nicander, in the third book of his Europe, says that Glaucus was beloved by
Nereus. And the same Nicander, in the first book of his history of the Affairs
of Aetolia, says that Apollo learnt the art of divination from Glaucus; and
that Glaucus when he was hunting near Orea, (and that is a lofty mountain in
Aetolia,) hunted a hare, which was knocked up by the length of the chance, and
got under a certain fountain, and when just on the point of dying, rolled
itself on the herbage that was growing around; and, as it recovered its
strength by means of the herbage, Glaucus too perceived the virtues of this
herb, and ate some himself. And becoming a god in consequence, when a storm
came, he, in accordance with the will of Jupiter, threw himself into the sea.
But Hedylus, whether he was a Samian or an Athenian I know not, says that
Glaucus was enamoured of Melicert, and threw himself into the sea after him.
But Hedyl, the mother of this poet, and daughter of Moschine of Atica, a
poetess who composed Iambics, in her poem which is entitled Scylla, relates
that Glaucus being in love with Scylla came to her cave—
Bearing a
gift of love, a mazy shell,
Fresh from the Erythrean rock, and with it too
The offspring, yet unfledged, of Alcyon,
To win th’ obdurate maid. He gave in vain.
Even the lone Siren on the neighbouring isle
Pitied the lover’s tears. For as it chanced,
He swam towards the shore which she did haunt,
Nigh to th’ unquiet caves of Aetna.
(Athenæus 1854, Deipnosophistae 7.48)
Fresh from the Erythrean rock, and with it too
The offspring, yet unfledged, of Alcyon,
To win th’ obdurate maid. He gave in vain.
Even the lone Siren on the neighbouring isle
Pitied the lover’s tears. For as it chanced,
He swam towards the shore which she did haunt,
Nigh to th’ unquiet caves of Aetna.
(Athenæus 1854, Deipnosophistae 7.48)
Agrostis as Phalaris?
The
imagery certainly seems to suggest a visionary substance. It gives the gods’
horses the power of flight. When people eat it, they become immortal, or are
“seized by a divine madness” or “engulfed in the sea.” One who ate it is
associated with the origin of prophecy and with the construction of the Argo (a
ship whose quest Ruck insists is fraught with psychoactive symbolism; Ruck et
al. 2001). If these references are meant to be purely symbolic or mythological,
why choose something so mundane as a simple grass? But if these mythological
accounts do point toward an actual psychoactive grass, the pool of potential
candidates is quite small, and Phalarisgrasses
immediately stand out. Notice that we should not make the mistake of equating
the Greek agrostis with
grasses of the genus Agrostis;
while the latter are named for the former, we have no reason to believe they
are equivalent.
The
following is not an exhaustive treatment of the chemistry and human
pharmacology of the genus Phalaris.
While that would be an interesting subject, it would require at least a short
book to do justice to the material. For good information on that subject, the
reader is recommended to consult Trout (2004, chapter 2: section 3), Festi
& Samorini (1994), or Voogelbreinder (2009, pp. 272–274), as well as
discussions from the DMT-Nexus. For the remainder of the article, we will try
to hit the highlights as they pertain to the possible discovery of the grass’s
psychoactive potential in ancient Greece.
The
very first question we must consider regarding the possible identification
of agrostis asPhalaris spp. is that of access:
Did Phalaris actually
occur in the Mediterranean a few millennia ago? The answer is a resounding yes.
It actually appears that the Mediterranean was a center of diversification for
the genus (Festi & Samorini 1994), many species are native there and we can
safely suppose that they have occurred there for a very long time.
We
must also consider whether it is possible that ancient peoples could have
discovered the visionary potential of the grass without sophisticated
processing techniques. Certainly the potential for visionary activity exists.
The alkaloids N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT),
5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) and 5-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (bufotenine or 5-OH-DMT) have all been
isolated from some Phalaris specimens
(Festi & Samorini 1994), and all three are associated with a rich history
of use as visionary agents in South American cultures. Additionally, some
specimens contain the monomethyl analogues N-methyltryptamine (NMT or MMT) and 5-methoxy-N-methyltryptamine (5-MeO-NMT or
5-MeO-MMT). The activity of these monomethyl analogues has not been robustly
explored, but there are indications that NMT is active orally (Nen 2012) as
well as when vaporized, and that it may act synergistically with DMT (Nen
2011).
In
modern times, most human experimentation with Phalaris spp. has been in the context of using the plant in
an “ayahuasca analogue” type mixture. This means that the focus is on the DMT
content. Thus, when taken orally, it is always consumed in conjunction with a
monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) in order to render the DMT orally active
(McKenna & Towers 1984; Ott 1994). To suppose that the ancient Greeks would
have consumed the grass in conjunction with an MAOI is simply not credible. The
South American ayahuasca complex, with DMT-containing admixture plants, appears
to have arisen subsequent to a tradition of using the vine alone (Highpine
2013). We have no analogous MAOI plant in ancient Greece which could have made
the discovery of this synergy possible. If the discovery of this synergy did
occur in ancient Greece, it has been lost to the vagaries of time. One might
try to make the case that this is the lost solution to the Eleusinian Mystery,
but that is a much bolder claim than I am making here, and would require more
extraordinary evidence to support it.
On
the other hand, several tryptamine-bearing Phalaris species contain the alkaloids 2-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline
(2-Me-THβC), 2-methyl-6-methoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline
(2-Me-6-MeO-THβC), and 2,9-dimethyl-6-methoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline
(Festi & Samorini 1994). These alkaloids are very closely related to
harmine, harmaline, and tetrahydroharmine – compounds which render DMT orally
active by way of their inhibitory effect on monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), in
addition to having significant psychoactive effects in their own right. A quick
search turns up no human self-experimentation with these compounds, but a study
related to its occurrence in ruminant forage notes that 2-Me-THβC “is one of
the most effective MAO-A-inhibitors” (Kemmerling 1996). It is therefore
possible that a strain of Phalarisgrass
with the right alkaloid profile could provide an ayahuasca-like cocktail of
tryptamines and β-carbolines, without the need for any admixture plants.
If
we discard the possibility of MAOI involvement (and thus any involvement of
DMT), we are still left with the significant possibility that 5-MeO-DMT or
bufotenine could have provided the visionary power to an ancient Greek who
consumed the grass. Conventional wisdom has long held that 5-MeO-DMT, like DMT,
requires an MAOI in order to be orally active (Shulgin & Shulgin 1997, p. 535),
but experience trumps conventional wisdom, and 5-MeO-DMT has been reported to
be orally active without coadministration of an MAOI (Ott 2001b, pp. 103–104;
while this claim has often been repeated by others, Ott’s is the only credible
report on ingesting 5-MeO-DMT alone that I have read). Bufotenine has been
similarly reported to be orally active without the need for an MAOI (Ott
2001a). Neither 5-MeO-DMT or bufotenine are regarded as particularly pleasant
when taken orally, but many people are willing to endure unpleasant effects to
achieve ecstatic states.
Although
we have little direct evidence on the consumption of Phalaris by itself, we can find
some interesting parallels in two South American genera: Anadenanthera and Virola. The most common use of these
trees among the indigenous people of South America is as a source of visionary
snuffs, but there are reports that both Virola (Schultes & Hofmann 1980, pp. 130–134) andAnadenanthera (Torres &
Repke 2006, p. 86) are sometimes used orally in traditional settings without
the coadministration of an MAOI. Both genera have been shown to produce a range
of tryptamines, much the same as have been found in Phalaris, but their primary alkaloids
are 5-MeO-DMT (for Virola)
and bufotenine (for Anadenanthera).
The oral use of these plants seems to justify the notion that Phalaris could have been used
orally to produce a potentially desirable visionary state.
A
major problem with the ancient use of Phalaris – and its modern use for that matter – is simple
inconsistency. The alkaloidal composition and content can vary seasonally, it
can vary based on environmental conditions, it can vary among specimens in a
given population, and to top it off, the alkaloid profile of offspring will
often differ from its parent (Trout 2004). It’s possible that awareness of the
grass’ visionary potential was limited by this unpredictability. A drug whose
effects could not be relied upon to manifest with a particular dose could not
be expected to enter into common usage.
Summary
of suggested mechanisms of activity
We
have proposed several possible routes of activity:
● DMT
rendered orally active by 2-Me-THβC and other β-carbolines in the grass [based
on pharmacological considerations]
●
NMT orally active, possibly only when coadministered with DMT [based on human
self-experimentation with Acacia confusa]
●
5-MeO-DMT orally active [based on human self-experimentation with the pure
compound]
●
Bufotenine orally active [based on human self-experimentation with the pure
compound]
●
The mixture of tryptamines work in concert to produce a visionary effect by
oral administration [based on ethnographic literature for Anadenanthera spp. and Virola spp., which contain many
of the same alkaloids]
With
the exception of the β-carboline hypothesis, which is speculative, a patch
of Phalaris grass
with the proper alkaloid profile could absolutely be expected to produce a
visionary experience by any of the abovementioned mechanisms. In other words,
it is entirely feasible that people in ancient Greece could have discovered the
psychoactive potential of the grass without any sophisticated processing
technologies.
Successes
from ingesting solely Phalaris?
As
mentioned previously, virtually all reported oral ingestions of Phalaris grass involve an MAOI
admixture plant, but there are a couple reports which stand out due to the
insufficiency of the intended MAOI. These reports appear to represent proof of
concept.
Oilman
(2012) attempted to use coffee as an MAOI in combination with 10 g Phalaris arundinacea. The result was
a relatively mild but pleasant experience. While coffee does weakly inhibit
MAO, it does not seem likely to have played a very significant role in the
reported effects.
Toltec
(2004) attempted to use 3 g Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia) leaves and 1 g St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) flowers as an
MAOI in combination with 11 g Phalaris
aquatica. The result was a remarkably powerful experience, “one of the
most positive” of their life. It is unlikely that either the Russian olive or
the St. John’s wort contributed any significant MAOI effect.Elaeagnus spp. contain
β-carboline MAOIs, but in such low concentration that a mere 3 g should not
have been active (Snozzleberry 2011), and St. John’s wort is currently regarded
as having little to no MAOI activity (Greeson et al. 2001).
Toxicity
concerns
Because
we are entertaining the possibility that Phalaris could have been used as an orally active visionary
plant, it is prudent--from a harm reduction standpoint--to also consider the
potential negative consequences of consuming the plant. Considering the
self-experimentation reported in early issues of the Entheogen Review and around the
Internet, it is probably safe to conclude that no serious harm will come of a
single ingestion of a reasonable quantity of Phalaris grass. In fact, we have no concrete evidence
that Phalaris is
toxic to humans, though this could simply be the result of a small data set –
few people deliberately eat the grass. Instead, we have hints, suggestions, and
possible causes for concern, which will be discussed briefly below. Anyone
considering ingesting Phalaris grass
would be well-advised to dig a little deeper into these concerns before
deciding that the plant is safe to consume regularly or in quantity.
Phalaris
staggers
Phalaris
staggers is a syndrome which occasionally afflicts sheep or cattle grazing
on Phalarisgrass. The
syndrome is characterized by incoordination and spontaneous collapsing,
sometimes accompanied by convulsions or coma. It can prove fatal for the
afflicted animals and has consequently received a great deal of study, but the
causes are still poorly understood and open to some debate.
Some
have blamed the staggers on the tryptamine content of the grass, but this is
problematic. While injecting livestock with DMT, 5-MeO-DMT, and bufotenine
produced somatic symptoms reminiscent of the staggers, they were not fatal and
did not precipitate a chronic condition as is seen in grazing animals (Rendig
et al. 1976; Trout 2004). More recent research indicates that fatal cases of
phalaris staggers are actually cases of peracute ammonia toxicity (Broad 2006).
These cases occur when animals switch from low-nitrogen forage to
nitrogen-rich Phalaris grass,
which also contains some yet-unidentified inhibitor of nitrogen metabolism
(Broad 2006).
All in all, the toxicity represented by
phalaris staggers is probably of minimal concern to humans ingesting the grass.
It occurs only rarely in ruminants who graze on large quantities of the grass,
and appears not to be correlated with alkaloid
content desirable to humans. The syndrome has been discussed in greater depth
by Festi & Samorini (1994), Shulgin & Shulgin (1997, pp. 259–261), and
Trout (2004).
Gramine
and hordenine
These
compounds are one of the factors that keep Phalaris from attaining the status of a popular modern
source of DMT. The average extractor lacks the means to determine whether these
compounds have been extracted into their final product, and so they simply err
on the side of caution and choose a different plant source. However, it’s
possible that these compounds have been unfairly maligned. Both compounds occur
in malted barley, and are routinely consumed by people worldwide as a component
of beer (Poocharoen 1983).
This is not to say that the compounds
lack the potential for toxicity. Gramine has been found to have an LD50 of
44.6 mg/kg, i.v., in mice and 62.9 mg/kg, i.v., in rats (Erspamer 1954), while
hordenine is reported to have a minimum lethal dose of roughly 1 g/kg, s.c., in
rats (Camus 1906). These figures are well above the range that we would
ordinarily expect people to ingest. Gramine and hordenine have been shown to
produce some non-lethal adverse effects when fed to chickens, but only with
chronic feeding at high doses (500 mg/kg feed for several weeks; Chaniago et
al. 2011)
Trout
(2004) has suggested that these compounds could be involved in fatal cases of
phalaris staggers, remarking that “[a]ny combination of gramines, tryptamines
and/or hordenine, coadministered with MAO inhibiting β-carbolines, could
produce life threatening cardiac events if ingested in sufficient quantity.”
While he suggests that the cause of the staggers is more complex, he also
reiterates the possibility that hordenine, in combination with an MAOI, could
produce a “serious cardiac risk,” presumably because of its stimulant activity.
Gramine has also been found to inhibit norepinephrine reuptake (Slotkin et al.
1979) and thus presents similar potential dangers if taken with an MAOI. Yet
Trout (2004) seems to feel these risks are only present if very large
quantities are consumed, as when grazing; no mention is made of these risks
with regard to human use of Phalaris grasses
as an ayahuasca analogue.
Some
research has suggested that the presence of gramine is negatively correlated
with the presence of tryptamines, but they acknowledge there are exceptions
(Gander et al. 1976). It is inadvisable to regard the presence of DMT as
evidence for the absence of gramine. The cautious psychonaut would do well to
subject their sample to thin-layer chromatography (TLC).
For
further references on gramine, see Trout & Friends (2007, pp. 11–12). For
further references on hordenine, see Shulgin et al. (2011, pp. 147–152).
MAOI
interaction with 5-MeO-DMT
While
5-MeO-DMT can be a trace component of traditional ayahuasca brews, serious
concerns have been raised in the past decade over the safety of orally
ingesting the drug, particularly in combination with an MAOI (Erowid 2010). The
dataset on this issue is not robust, so some measure of speculation is
inevitably required.
We
know that at least one person has died after consuming a combination of
β-carbolines and 5-MeO-DMT (Sklerov et al. 2005), although the dosage and
provenance of the drugs is not clear (Callaway et al. 2006). There is another
published report where an individual ended up in the hospital experiencing a
hypertensive crisis with seizures, fever, and rapid heart rate after ingesting
syrian rue (Peganum harmala)
extract and smoking a large unspecified dose of 5-MeO-DMT (Brush et al. 2004).
Additional reports of varying degrees of unpleasant effects from ingesting
5-MeO-DMT orally can be found online (e.g. Butane 2006; Murple 2000), though
these unpleasant effects are not always present, nor are they common among
other routes of administration (Ginkgo 2010; Konnexion 2009; Oroc 2009; Ott 2001b).
The
mechanism behind these adverse reactions is unclear. Under ordinary
circumstances, most 5-MeO-DMT is deaminated into 5-methoxyindole-3-acetic acid,
a non-psychoactive compound, by MAO; other metabolic pathways include
O-demethylation by CYP2D6 to produce bufotenine and N-oxygenation to produce
5-MeO-DMT-N-oxide (Shen et al.
2010; Yu 2008). When MAO is inhibited, deamination is halted, so more of the
drug would be metabolized by CYP2D6 into bufotenine. The efficiency of CYP2D6
varies dramatically based on individual genetic makeup (Droll et al. 1998), so
it’s possible that this variation could lead to differences in the incidence of
adverse reactions.
But
even if this is the case, it’s not clear whether increased toxicity would
result from high-efficiency metabolism and the consequent high levels of
bufotenine, or from low-efficiency metabolism and the consequent high levels of
5-MeO-DMT and 5-MeO-DMT-N-oxide.
In the early literature, bufotenine is associated with some fairly toxic
effects, but recent assays and its history of traditional use in South America
tends to indicate it as an effective visionary tool (Ott 2001a; Shulgin &
Shulgin 1997; Torres & Repke 2006). Until there is better data on the
subject, extreme caution is advised when combining 5-MeO-DMT with MAOIs.
β-carboline
neurotoxicity
Some
β-carbolines closely related to the ones that occur in Phalaris grasses have been shown
to be neurotoxic, and others have been shown to inhibit mitochondrial
respiration. Dr. Shulgin and Keeper Trout have suggested that even if the Phalaris β-carbolines are not
toxic in themselves, they could be metabolized into neurotoxic compounds after
ingestion. (Voogelbreinder 2009, p. 274)
Conclusion
Do
we have enough evidence to identify the agrostis of these myths as a species
of Phalaris? Probably not,
if we’re being entirely honest. But the idea certainly merits serious
consideration, especially in light of the current interest in the plant.
Perhaps there is a modern day Prometheus among us who, rather than fire, is
stealing grass from the gods to bestow unto mankind.
About
the author
Morris Crowley is an independent writer
who studies the history and chemistry of visionary plants and their interaction
with humankind. You can follow him on Twitter @morris_crowley.
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